History of Money
The
history of money is a story spanning thousands of years. Related to this,
Numismatics is the scientific study of money and its history in all its varied forms.
Money itself must be a scarce good. Many items have been used as money, from naturally
scarce precious metals and conch shells through cigarettes to entirely artificial
money such as banknotes. Modern money (and most ancient money too) is essentially
a token — in other words, an abstraction. Paper currency is perhaps the most common
type of physical money today. However, goods such as gold or silver retain many
of money's essential properties.
The use of proto-money may date back to at least 100,000 B.P. Trading in red ochre
is attested in Swaziland, from about that date, and ochre seems to have functioned
as a proto-money in Aboriginal Australia. Shell jewellery in the form of strung
beads would have served as good with the basic attributes needed of early money.
In cultures where metal working was unknown, shell or ivory jewellery were the most
divisible, easily storable and transportable, scarce, and hard to counterfeit objects
that could be made. It is highly unlikely that there were formal markets in 100,000
B.P (any more than there are in recently observed hunter-gatherer cultures). Nevertheless,
proto-money would have been useful in reducing the costs of less frequent transactions
that were crucial to hunter-gatherer cultures, especially bride purchase, splitting
property upon death, tribute, and intertribal trade in hunting ground rights (“starvation
insurance”) and implements. In the absence of a medium of exchange, all of these
transactions suffer from the basic problem of barter — they require an improbable
coincidence of wants or events. Jewellery has often been used for currency and wealth
storage in some historical and contemporary societies, especially those in which
modern forms of money are scarce, in addition to being used for decoration and display
of status and wealth.
In cultures, of any era, that lack money, bartering and some system of in-kind "credit"
or "gift exchange" would be the only ways to exchange goods. Bartering has several
problems, most notably the coincidence of wants problem. If one wishes to trade
fruit for wheat, it can only be done when the fruit and wheat are both available
at the same time and place, which may be for a very brief time, or may be never.
With an intermediate commodity (whether it be shells, rum, gold, etc.) fruit can be sold when it is ripe
in exchange for the intermediate commodity. This intermediate commodity can then
be used to buy wheat when the wheat harvest comes in. Thus the use of money makes
all commodities become more liquid.
Where trade is common, barter systems usually lead quite rapidly to several key
goods being imbued with monetary properties. In the early British colony of New
South Wales in Australia, rum emerged quite soon after settlement as the most monetary
of goods. When a nation is without a fiat currency system it is quite common for
the fiat currency of a neighbouring nation to emerge as the dominant monetary good.
In some prisons where conventional money is prohibited, it is quite common for goods
such as cigarettes to take on a monetary quality.
Gold has emerged naturally from the world of barter again and again to take
on a monetary function. It should be noted that the emergence of monetary goods
is not dependent on central authority or government. It is a quite natural market
phenomenon.
COMMODITY MONEY
Many early instances of money were objects which were useful for their intrinsic
value as well as their monetary properties. This has been called commodity money;
historical examples include iron nails (in Scotland), pigs, rare seashells, whale's
teeth, and (often) cattle. In medieval Iraq, bread was used as an early form of
currency.
The use of shells or ivory was nearly universal before humans discovered how to
work with precious metals; in China, Africa, and many other areas, use of cowrie
shells was common. In China the use of cowrie shells was superseded by metal representations
of the shells, as well as representations of metal tools. These imitations may have
been the precursors of coinage.
Salt and spices have been used as money. From 550 BC, accepting salt from a person
was synonymous with receiving a salary, taking pay, or being in that person's service.
Definite indications are available that both black and white pepper have been used
as commodity money for hundreds of years before Christ, and several centuries thereafter.
Being a valuable commodity, pepper has naturally been used as payment. Alaric reportedly
demanded 3,000 pounds in weight of pepper in 408 AD as part of a ransom for the
city of Rome. In the Middle Ages, there was a French saying, 'As dear as pepper'.
In England, rent could be paid in pounds of pepper, and so a symbolic minimal amount
is known as a "peppercorn rent".
Even in the modern world, in the absence of other types of money, people have occasionally
used commodities such as tobacco as money. This happened on a wide scale after World
War II when cigarettes became used unofficially in Europe, in parallel with other
currencies, for a short time. It also occurs in some remote parts of countries such
as Colombia and Bolivia, where cocaine, or its precursor, coca paste, is used as
commodity money.
Another example of "commodity money" is shell money in the Solomon Islands. Shells
are painstakingly chipped into rough circles, filed down, and threaded onto large
necklaces, which are then used during marriage proposals; for instance, a father
may charge twenty shell money necklaces for his daughter's hand in marriage.
One interesting example of commodity money is the huge limestone coins from the
Micronesian island of Yap, quarried with great peril from a source several hundred
miles away. The value of the coin was determined by its size — the largest of which
could range from nine to twelve feet in diameter and weigh several tons. Displaying
a large coin, often outside one's home, was a considerable status symbol and source
of prestige in that society. (Owing to the great inconvenience, islanders would
often trade only promises of ownership of an individual coin instead of actually
moving it. In some cases, coins which had been lost at sea were still used for exchange
in this way. These agreements could be thought of as a kind of representative money,
described below.)
Once a commodity becomes used as money, it takes on a value that is often different
from its intrinsic worth or usefulness. Having the propety of money adds an extra
use to the commodity, and so increases its value. This extra use is a convention
of society, and the scope of its use as money within the society affects the value
of the monetary commodity. So although commodity money is real, it should not be
seen as having a fixed value in absolute terms. To a large extent its value is still
socially determined. A prime example is
gold, which has been valued differently by many different societies, but
perhaps valued most by those who used it as money. Fluctuations in the value of
commodity money can be strongly influenced by supply and demand, whether current
or predicted (if a local gold mine is about to run out of ore, the relative market
value of gold may go up in anticipation of a shortage).
Money can be anything which the trading parties agree has transferable value, but
the usability of a particular sort of money varies widely. Desirable features of
a good basis for money include being able to be stored for long periods of time,
dense so it can be carried about easily, and difficult to find on its own so it
is actually worth something.
Metals like gold and silver
have been used as commodity money for thousands of years, being in the form of metal
dust, nuggets, rings, bracelets and assorted pieces. Eventually the Lydians began
coining gold and silver around 560 BC.
Gold and silver are both quite soft metals, and
coins minted from the pure metals suffer from wear or deformation in daily
use. Fortunately these metals are also easily alloyed with a less expensive metal,
frequently copper, to improve durability of the resulting coins. Typically alloys
of coinage metals, such as sterling silver or 22 carat (92%) gold, are used to make
coins more durable. These are alloys of 90% or more precious metal, for alloys of
less than 90% do not improve hardness or durability much, and so are typically considered
to be liable to fall into monetary debasement.
STANDARDIZED COINAGE
It was the discovery of the touchstone which led the way for metal-based commodity
money and coinage. Any soft metal can be tested for purity on a touchstone, allowing
one to quickly calculate the total content of a particular metal in a lump. Gold
is a soft metal, which is also hard to come by, dense, and storable. As a result,
monetary gold spread very quickly from Asia Minor, where it first gained wide usage,
to the entire world.
Using such a system still required several steps and mathematical calculation. The
touchstone allows one to estimate the amount of gold in an alloy, which is then
multiplied by the weight to find the amount of gold alone in a lump.
To make this process easier, the concept of standard coinage was introduced. Coins
were pre-weighed and pre-alloyed, so as long as the manufacturer was aware of the
origin of the coin, no use of the touchstone was required. Coins were typically
minted by governments in a carefully protected process, and then stamped with an
emblem that guaranteed the weight and value of the metal. It was, however, extremely
common for governments to assert the value of such money lay in its emblem and thus
to subsequently debase the currency by lowering the content of valuable metal.
Although gold and silver
were commonly used to mint coins, other metals could be used. For instance, Ancient
Sparta minted coins from iron to discourage its citizens from engaging in foreign
trade. In the early seventeenth century Sweden lacked more precious metal and so
produced "plate money," which were large slabs of copper approximately 50cm or more
in length and width, appropriately stamped with indications of their value.
Metal based coins had the advantage of carrying their value within the coins themselves
— on the other hand, they induced manipulations: the clipping of coins in the attempt
to get and recycle the precious metal. A greater problem was the simultaneous co-existence
of gold, silver and copper coins in Europe. English and Spanish traders valued gold coins more than silver coins, as many of their neighbors did,
with the effect that the English gold-based guinea coin began to rise against the
English silver based crown in the 1670s and 1680s. Consequently, silver was ultimately
pulled out of England for dubious amounts of gold coming into the country at a rate
no other European nation would share. The effect was worsened with Asian traders
not sharing the European appreciation of gold altogether — gold left Asia and silver
left Europe in quantities European observers like Isaac Newton, Master of the Royal
Mint observed with unease.
Stability came into the system with national Banks guaranteeing to change money
into gold at a promised rate; it did, however, not come easily. The Bank of England
risked a national financial catastrophe in the 1730s when customers demanded their
money be changed into gold in a moment of crisis. Eventually London's merchants
saved the bank and the nation with financial guarantees.
An example of representative money, this 1896 note could be exchanged for five US
Dollars worth of silver.
The system of commodity money in many instances evolved into a system of representative
money. This occurred because banks would issue a paper receipt to their depositors,
indicating that the receipt was redeemable for whatever precious goods were being
stored (usually gold or silver money). It didn't take long before the receipts were
traded as money, because everyone knew they were "as good as gold". Representative
paper money made possible the practice of fractional reserve banking, in which bankers
would print receipts above and beyond the amount of acutal precious metal on deposit.
So in this system, paper currency and non-precious coinage had very little intrinsic
value, but achieved significant market value by being backed by a promise to redeem
it for a given weight of precious metal, such as
silver. This is the origin of the term "British Pound" for instance; it
was a unit of money backed by a Tower pound of sterling silver, hence the currency
Pound Sterling. For much of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, many currencies
were based on representative money through use of the gold standard.
FIAT MONEY
Fiat money refers to money that is not backed by reserves of another commodity.
The money itself is given value by government fiat (Latin for "let it be done")
or decree, enforcing legal tender laws, previously known as "forced tender", whereby
debtors are legally relieved of the debt if they (offer to) pay it off in the government's
money. By law the refusal of "legal tender" money in favor of some other form of
payment is illegal, and has at times in history (Rome under Diocletian, and post-revolutionary
France during the collapse of the assignats) invoked the death penalty.
An example of fiat money is the new, international currency, the Euro. Its introduction
changed the face of money, superseding many of the world's oldest currencies.
Governments through history have often switched to forms of fiat money in times
of need such as war, sometimes by suspending the service they provided of exchanging
their money for gold, and other times
by simply printing the money that they needed. When governments produce money more
rapidly than economic growth, the money supply overtakes economic value. Therefore,
the excess money eventually dilutes the market value of all money issued. This is
called inflation.
In 1971 the US finally switched to fiat money indefinitely. At this point in time
many of the economically developed countries' currencies were fixed to the US dollar,
and so this single step meant that much of the western world's currencies became
fiat money based.
Following the first Gulf War the president of Iraq, Saddam Hussein, repealed the
existing Iraqi fiat currency and replaced it with a new currency. Despite having
no backing by a commodity and with no central authority mandating its use or defending
its value the old currency continued to circulate within the politically isolated
Kurdish regions of Iraq. It became known as the Swiss Dinar. This currency remained
relatively strong and stable for over a decade. It was formally replaced following
the second Gulf War.
CREDIT MONEY
Credit money often exists in conjunction with other money such as fiat money or
commodity money, and from the user's point of view is indistinguishable from it.
Most of the western world's money is credit money derived from national fiat money
currencies.
In a modern economy, a bank will lend all but a small portion of its deposits to
borrowers, this is known as fractional reserve banking. In doing so, it increases
the total money supply above that of the total amount of the fiat money in existence
(also known as M0). While a bank will not have access to sufficient cash (fiat money)
to meet all the obligations it has to depositors if they wish to withdraw the balance
of their cheque accounts (credit money), the majority of transactions will occur
using the credit money (cheques and electronic transfers).
Strictly speaking a debt is not money, primarily because debt can not act as a unit
of account. All debts are denominated in units of something external to the debt.
However, credit money certainly acts as a substitute for money when it is used in
other functions of money (medium of exchange and store of value).
INDO-EUROPEAN AND SEMITIC ETYMOLOGY
The origin of the word "money" comes from the Latin word "moneta", which comes from
the temple of Juno (Hera) the Moneta where the Roman money came from, in the early
days of Rome.
In Greek language, "Hera Mone tas" means the lonely Hera ("Mone tas" in Doric Greek,
"Mone tes" in Ionic dialect). Zeus punished Hera and tied her with a golden chain
between the earth and sky. Hera, because she was alone between the sky and earth
tied with gold, was called moneres or mone (lonely in Greek), and the word money
was derived from this. Hera, with the help of Hephaestus, broke the golden chain
and released herself. It is said that all gold found on earth (which forms approximately
a single cube 20 m a side) originates from the fragments of this golden chain, which
fall from the sky and became human's mone (money).
Perhaps because of this fable, gold was used in ancient Greece only in temples,
graves and jewels and there is not any ancient Greek
golden coin, until the days around 390 BC, when the Greek king Philip II
of Macedon minted golden coins. The first golden coins in history were coined by
Lydian king Croesus, around 560 BC. The first Greek coins were made initially of
copper, then of iron because copper and iron were powerful materials used to make
weapons. Pheidon king of Argos, around 700 BC, changed the coins from iron to a
rather useless and ornamental metal, silver, and, according to Aristotle, dedicated
some of the remaining iron coins (which were actually iron sticks) to the temple
of Hera. King Pheidon coined the silver
coins at Aegina, at the temple of the goddess of wisdom and war Athena the
Aphaia (the vanisher), and engraved the coins with a Chelone, which is to this day
as a symbol of capitalism. Chelone coins were the first medium of exchange that
was not backed by a real value good. They were widely accepted and used as the international
medium of exchange until the days of Peloponnesian War, when the Athenian Drachma
replace them. According other fables, inventors of money were Demodike(or Hermodike)
of Kymi (the wife of Midas), Lykos (son of Pandion II and ancestor of the Lycians)
and Erichthonius, the Lydians or the Naxians.
The word money in Greek language is not "money", it is "nomisma" or "numisma", which
derives from the word "nomizo" - (I think so, I suppose so) and from the word "nomos"
(law). So numisma gives the exact meaning and definition of money. It is something
we think has value, or something which someone has convinced us has, but in reality
has not. In case we are unconvinced that money has value and we do not recognize
the money maker authority, money is also something that we are enforced by law to
use it as the unique medium of exchange in trades. In case an individual or a community
refuses to accept mone as the unique medium of exchange, then the powerful money
maker authority, using violence and the taxes procedure, steals the real value goods
(home, food, transport, energy) that the individual or the community owns. That
is why many individuals or communities hide their goods from money-maker authorities.
The crime of hiding goods from a money-maker authority is called tax evasion.
"He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches. To the
winner, I will give some of the hidden manna and I will also give him a white vote
with a new name written on it which no one knows except the one who receives it."(Book
of Revelation 2:17)
One of the words for money in the Hebrew language is mammon. Mammon does have more
than one meaning depending on its linguistic and etymological contexts. The Hebrew
and Christian Bible gives the word mammon a broader context in its socioeconomic,
cultural, and theological usages. Mammon, a word of Aramaic origin, means "riches",
but has an unclear etymology; scholars have suggested connections with a word meaning
"entrusted", or with the Hebrew word "matmon", meaning "treasure". It is also used
in Hebrew as a word for "money".
The Greek word for "Mammon", mamonas, occurs in the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew
vi 24) and in the parable of the Unjust Steward (Luke xvi 9-13). The Authorised
Version keeps the Syriac word. Wycliffe uses "richessis". Other scholars derive
Mammon from Phoenician "mommon", benefit. It is interesting to note that if mammonas
is considered as a Greek word and as a composite one (the majority of Greek words
are composites), the two parts "mam-mon(as)" could be explained (in Greek doric)
as "lonely mother", which recalls Hera's myth mentioned above. Other explanations
could be mamm (means "mother" or "food") -onas (means "a place where you can find
mamm"), also mam (means "mother" or "food") -m (means "with") -on (means "being")-
as (with Circumflex, means "owner or seller").
Another word for money in hebrew is the word "Kessef", that translates to silver.
Also the french word for money, Argent, derives from the greek word, and translates
also to silver.
According to the Book of Revelation, the mark of the beast seems to be a form of
money: "And he causeth all, both small and great, rich and poor, free and bond,
to receive a mark in their right hand, or in their foreheads: And that no man might
buy or sell, save he that had the mark, or the name of the beast, or the number
of his name. Here is wisdom. Let him that hath understanding vote the number of
the beast: for it is the number of a man; and his number is 666." (Book of Revelation
13:16-13:18).
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